May 2006 • Volume 37 • Number 5 • Pages 55-61

Research into Practice

Karen D. Wood, Anne Tope Edwards, Patricia Hill-Miller, & Jean Vintinner

Motivation, Self-Efficacy, and the Engaged Reader

* This We Believe Characteristics High expectations for all members of the learning community Students and teachers engaged in active learning Multiple learning and teaching approaches that respond to student diversity * Denotes the corresponding characteristics from NMSA's position paper, This We Believe, for this article.

What can teachers do to get middle school students to read? How can teachers create classroom cultures that support and nurture middle school students in becoming highly motivated readers? The results of a survey conducted by the National Reading Research Center indicated that these are questions that many educators ponder as they strive to address the literacy needs of students in the middle grades (Gambrell, 1996; O'Flahavan, Gambrell, Guthrie, Stahl, & Alvermann, 1992).
Out of approximately 80 reading topics, teachers identified "creating interest in reading" as the top priority for reading research. Three other topics related to motivation appeared in the top 10 survey results: developing intrinsic desire for reading; increasing the amount and breadth of children's reading; and exploring the roles teachers, peers, and parents play in increasing children's motivation to read (Baker, 2003; O'Flahavan, Gambrell, Guthrie, Stahl, & Alvermann, 1992).

In this article, we define reading motivation; discuss the decrease in motivation in the middle grades; explain the role self-efficacy plays in the learning process; and then show how using a variety of interesting comprehension strategies can help engage readers with their assignments.

What Is Reading Motivation?

Wigfield and Guthrie (1997) suggested that reading motivation consists of 11 dimensions of reading that fall into 3 categories. One category includes competence and efficacy beliefs. Self-efficacy is the belief that one can be successful at reading. Challenge, the willingness to take on difficult reading material, and work avoidance, or the desire to avoid reading activities, are also included in this category. The second category focuses on the purposes and goals children have for reading, whether intrinsic or extrinsic. The intrinsic (learning) goals are curiosity, the desire to read about a particular topic of interest; involvement, the enjoyment experienced from reading certain kinds of literary or informational texts; and importance, the belief that reading is valuable. The extrinsic (performance) goals are recognition, the pleasure in receiving a tangible form of recognition for success in reading; reading for grades, the desire to be favorably evaluated by the teacher; and competition, the desire to outperform others in reading. The third category addresses social aspects of reading: social, the sharing of the meanings gained from reading with others; and compliance, reading to meet the expectations of others (Baker, 2003).

What Happens to Students' Motivation in the Middle Grades?

For many students, the transition to middle school marks the beginning of a general decline in academic performance, motivation, self-perceptions of ability, and relationships with peers and teachers (Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Eccles & Midgley, 1989). Much of the decline in student motivation in the middle grades can be attributed to instructional practices and school environments that are not sensitive to the developmental needs of young adolescents (Dembo & Eaton, 2000). As children move into young adulthood, the strength of their motivation to engage in voluntary reading during their free time also declines. Guthrie (1997) cited findings from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (1994) that the average middle school student reads less than 5 minutes a day for his or her own pleasure, while about 10% read voluntarily for 30 minutes per day or more. A grave concern is that if students do not commit time for reading then they will not gain the reading skills or knowledge necessary for success in school.

There is also evidence that as students move from grade four to grade seven, their intrinsic motivation (the desire to read out of curiosity and pursue their own interests) for reading tends to decline while their extrinsic motivation (the desire for higher grades, competition, and cognitive competence) tends to increase (Gottfried, 1985; Guthrie & Davis, 2003). Typically, these students generally do not read for pleasure or seek satisfaction through books (Baker, 2003).

Instructional models (Guthrie & Davis, 2003; Guthrie, Wigfield & Von Secker, 2000) have been developed and tested that indicate intrinsic reading motivation can be enhanced in multiple ways including: providing autonomy support (through self-directed learning), competence support (via strategy instruction), relatedness support (from collaborative activities), learning goals (in the form of conceptual themes), and real-world interaction (in the form of hands-on activities). The theoretical justification for these practices comes in part from self-determination theory, which emphasizes development of intrinsic motivation by support for individuals' autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991) and from goal theory, which is concerned with the purposes students have for learning (Ames, 1992).

Why Engaged Readers Are Motivated Readers

A great deal of the most recent motivational research has been guided by the engagement perspective, which builds on theories of motivation, cognition, knowledge acquisition, and social development (Guthrie, 1996). According to Guthrie (1996), reading engagement is defined as the "motivated use of strategies for reading." His research suggested that engaged readers have deep-seated motivational goals, which include being committed to the subject matter, wanting to learn the content, believing in one's own ability, and wanting to share understanding from learning. Engaged readers possess the desire to learn and use their best strategies for understanding and interpreting text to enhance that learning (Guthrie, 1996). He and his co-researchers (Guthrie & Cox, 2001) found positive results through the implementation of a reading instructional program they call Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI). The results of their research indicate that CORI increased students' intrinsic motivation to read and their reading performance. The instruction in the CORI program centered on interdisciplinary, conceptual themes with a teaching framework that includes four phases: (a) observe and personalize, (b) search and retrieve, (c) comprehend and integrate, and (d) communicate to others. To implement this framework, teachers first identified a conceptual theme for instructional units to be taught, using primarily trade books instead of basal text series. The end results showed that students in the CORI classroom read more frequently and widely. CORI students also showed more curiosity, involvement in reading, preference for challenging books, social exchange, and competitiveness (Guthrie & Cox, 2001).

It can be said then that an engaged reader is knowledgeable, motivated, strategic, and socially interactive (Gambrell, 1996). According to McCabe and Margolis (2001), engaged and motivated readers also possess "self-efficacy."

What Is Self-Efficacy?

Quite often, the middle school student is faced with the question, "Can I do this task?" If a student can answer this question in the affirmative, they perform better and are motivated to select more challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expanding on the work of Bandura (1997), McCabe & Margolis (2001) asserted that self-efficacy is the personal belief that students have about their ability to succeed at a particular task. Thus, some students have a strong sense of self-efficacy and others do not. Students whose self-efficacy for reading is low often resist reading. However, the same students will exert considerable effort and energy towards activities they like and for which they feel self-efficacious. McCabe (2003) also suggested that self-efficacy develops as a result of feedback from family, school, and community throughout the developmental years. It is critical to help struggling readers develop an accurate belief that they can do well in reading if they make the effort to learn and apply what they are taught (McCabe & Margolis, 2001).

Self-efficacy is an important influence on motivation—the degree to which an individual will become engaged in and will expend physical or mental energy in an activity (McCabe, 2003). To help struggling readers become highly motivated readers, teachers must work hard to change students' "can't do" attitudes about reading into "can do" attitudes (McCabe & Margolis, 2001).

Margolis & McCabe (2003) suggested that the key to getting struggling readers with low self-efficacy to invest sufficient effort, to persist on tasks, and to take on increasingly challenging tasks is for teachers to systematically stress the development of high self-efficacy. Recent research (Zimmerman, 2000) as cited by Margolis and McCabe (2003) has suggested that by linking new work to recent successes, teaching needed reading strategies, stressing peer modeling, reinforcing persistence and effort, and helping students identify or create personally important goals will help strengthen the self-efficacy of struggling readers. In the remainder of this column, we share some strategies that we have found to be successful for engaging, motivating, and increasing the self-efficacy of middle school learners.

Strategies for Engaging and Motivating Learners

One technique that is working with seventh grade students in co-author Anne Edwards' school this year is their adaptation of Beck, McKeown, Hamilton, & Kucan's (1997) Questioning the Author or QtA strategy. In Edwards' school, Questioning the Author is first used in the social studies classroom in a whole-group setting. The students are directed to read a selection from the textbook. Then the teacher models the questions, and the students either discuss the questions (adapted from McKeown & Beck, 2004) or provide written responses, as shown in Figure 1. The following procedures are used to introduce students to the questioning strategy:

Figure 1
Sample QtZ for To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee
Chapter 8

Questioning the Author (Adapted from McKeon & Beck 1993)

What is the author trying to tell me? The changing weather—change in town Muddy snowman—covered with snow—still a snowman Fire at Ms. Maudie's—changing again Focus on one thing—fire and miss another—Boo Why is the author telling me this specific information? The changing weather and fire change the focus of the story. The snowman—a snow man is a snow man just like a person is a person—black or white Boo Radley isn't so bad—blanket Am I getting what the author is saying? (Jot down any words you don't know) Morphism? Is there symbolism dirt/snow? Sin/pure? How could Scout not know what snow is? If I wanted to tell someone else about this information, how would I say it? I think this chapter marks the change in the story. Before the snow and the fire the town is one way, now there are changes coming. Plus, the whole town came together over the fire.

• Step One. Assign a specific amount of text for silent reading. This may vary depending upon the grade and ability levels of the students.
• Step Two. At the designated stopping point, ask the group the four questions from QtA. These questions are shown in Figure 1.
• Step Three. Model the questioning and the answering—students usually catch on quickly. Talk aloud sample answers to illustrate the degree of elaboration and connection required.
• Step Four. For the next round of reading and questioning, provide students with the question chart and ask them to respond in writing on their own.
• Step Five. Vary the format of QtA—it works well with paired reading, small-group reading, and whole-group reading as well as in a written or verbal response mode.
• Step Six. Be open to criticism of the author—sometimes things really could be made more understandable!

These questions allow the students to think about what they are reading from their own perspective while engaging more deeply from the author's perspective. Students are actively engaged from the initial reading of the text as they seek out specific answers to the questions (Beck, McKeown, Hamilton, & Kucan, 1997). Once the students are familiar with the strategy, it is easy to apply it to other reading situations. The idea of using the technique with fiction is especially useful when literary genres are introduced to the seventh grade English classes in the library. As the library media specialist, Edwards provides a brief overview of the genre and search strategies for locating the materials. Students are given time to share their questions and answers with the class. Not only can answers be expanded upon when shared with the group, interest in a particular title also occurs with some regularity. Figure 1 is a representative example of student work for a lesson on Chapter 8 of Harper Lee's (1982 edition) To Kill a Mockingbird.

The evidence that "engaged learners are motivated learners" is shown in their follow-up comments. Edwards' reports that she often hears statements like the following: "I never liked fantasy before, but after the questioning activity I tried Earthsea [Wizard of Earthsea, by Ursula Le Guin] and I loved it." Another student reported, "I never would have checked out such a thick book, but it sounded so good I had to try it—and I read the whole thing!" One eighth grader remarked, "When I read my social studies book, I keep trying to figure out why the author uses the words he does, but when I read my novel, I think about the symbolism."

Another strategy that reading teacher Jean Vintinner has found useful in motivating students is called "3–2–1" (Zygouris-Coe, Wiggins, & Smith, 2004). This strategy requires that students summarize what they have read or are reading and elaborate on their personal connections to the text. The 3–2–1 strategy is applicable to many situations and is easy for students to master and remember, allowing them to transfer their knowledge to new learning. It can be used across all disciplines with any type of text and can be used both during and after reading. The procedures are as follows:

• Step One. Ask students to identify three things they discovered while reading. Because they must focus on only three ideas, students must summarize and prioritize information in their own words. This forces students to analyze what they understand and elaborate on details included in the text.
• Step Two. Next, tell the students to list two things they found interesting in the reading. This allows students to integrate their personal ideas with what they are reading and learning. As most research in motivation shows, students are more engaged in reading when they feel they are somehow connected to the content. This also increases students' confidence by validating the importance of their own beliefs and attitudes about the topics discussed in class.
• Step Three. Have the students create one question they still have about the topic. This provides an opportunity for students to recognize gaps in their own knowledge and gaps in the information provided in the text. It also allows students a chance to voice an increased interest in the topic and provides some opportunities for further research or discussion.

While responding to Walter Dean Myers' Monster (1999), students were given the opportunity to bring up critical issues about the text. One student asked if Steve (the main character who is on trial for murder) is able to find forgiveness (See Figure 2). Another asked what could drive a person to murder and if murder could ever be justified. Both responses brought about a character education class discussion about making the right choices and who should decide what is "right and wrong." By allowing students to present their own understanding of the text and questions they still have, teachers can modify instruction to make sure that students' needs are being met.

Figure 3
3-2-1 Chart for Independent Reading Selection

List Three Things You Discovered from Your Reading ...

That Steve was not the person who was bad during the whole show. His family was very supportive of him while he was in jail. And he did not kill the guy in the book.

List Two Things You Found Interesting from Your Reading ...

That the guy in prison was upset and was trying to kill himself with his shoe strings. The judge was too strict. Steve almost went to jail for something he didn't do.

List One Question You Still Have ...

Why didn't Steve just stay homoe that night?

Students can also use this strategy with content area texts. In responding to a science book, students are able to ask literal level questions to clear up any information they did not fully understand, but are also given the opportunity to make personal connections between what they already know or believe and what they are learning in class. After reading Unsolved Science Mysteries (Mather, 2003), students asked questions about the origins of the universe and "What happens when you die?" While some of these questions must remain unanswered, it is important for students to engage in texts and make connections between the content and their lives.

Figure 3
3-2-1 Chart for Unsoved Science Mysteries
by Henry Mather

List Three Things You Discovered from Your Reading ...

The astronomers study space and science. Extraterrestrial: not on or from the planet Earth. Extinct: not living anymore!

List Two Things You Found Interesting from Your Reading ...

A chemical called telomercise. The body needs a certain amount of nutrients. (Nutrients are the bulding block of the body.)

List One Question You Still Have ...

How do nutrients serve as building blocks for the body?

What makes the 3–2–1 strategy and the QtA strategy so motivating and engaging to middle school students is that they are both "doable." Both strategies involve a writing component, but the writing is manageable and not overwhelming. The strategies also respect student opinion by providing opportunities to choose and select what was important to them in the selection rather than answering teacher prepared or commercially developed questions that require students to "guess" what is expected of them. The 3–2–1 strategy, in particular, is applicable to and modifiable for math class as a review mechanism, where students can discuss what they have learned and indicate additional questions they may have about a specific computation process. Additional strategies the authors have found motivating are described in Figure 4.

Figure 4
Additional Strategies for Motivating and Engaging Students

The co-authors of this article have found the following strategies to be particularly successful with reluctant readers at varied grade levels, including Patty Hill-Miller’s adult, developmental reading classes: DRAW. Teachers prepare questions of varying levels of difficulty and place them in a hat. Students then draw to determine which question they will be responsible for answering. Students then read the selection and respond to the question. Students then share their responses with the class, prompting a class discussion. Agnew, M. L. (2000). DRAW: A motivational reading comprehension strategy for disaffected readers. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 43(6), 574–576. Vocabulary Self-Selection. Students build skills and understanding by selecting and recording the vocabulary in the text with which they are unfamiliar. Students have control over their own learning and are more motivated to participate. Haggard, M. (1986). The vocabulary self-collection strategy: Using student interest and word knowledge to enhance vocabulary growth. Journal of Reading, 29, 634–642. Virtual Vocabulary Field Trips: To introduce a lesson, the teacher selects several topically related texts while students offer terms and pictures related to the material to be read. As the teacher reads aloud from the texts, the students indicate when a familiar word is heard, engage in discussions, and then review through writing after the reading. Blachowicz, C. L. Z., & Obrochta, C. (2005). Vocabulary Visits: Virtual field trips for content vocabulary development. The Reading Teacher, 59, 262–268. Concept Muraling. It is a direct instructional approach where the teacher presents a visual representation of each concept from the material under study. Students create or collect images and related words to illustrate complex concepts discussed in class. It is especially useful for diverse learners and students with learning disabilities. Downey, P. M., & Farris, P. J. (2004). Concept muraling: Dropping visual crumbs along the instructional trail. The Reading Teacher, 58, 376–380. GIST: Generating Interactions between Schemata and Text. Students are forced to summarize information from a text, forcing them to use higher-order thinking skills to analyze their understanding of what they read. Cunningham, J. (1982). Generating interactions between schemata and text. In J. Niles & L. Harris (Eds.) New Inquiries in reading research and instruction, thirty-first yearbook of the National Reading Conference (pp. 42–47). Washington, DC: National Reading Conference. The Imposter. Teachers intentionally include information that is contrary to the idea of a passage to see if students can identify the misinformation and use higher order thinking skills to explain why the information is contradictory. Curran, M. J., & Smith, E. C. (2005).The Imposter: A motivational strategy to encourage reading in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 49, 186–190. Think, Pair, Share & Write. This strategy allows students time to reflect on their reaction to classroom topics before sharing ideas with the class. Students must first consider the topic being discussed individually, then share with a partner or small group before sharing with the class as a whole. An adaptation of this discussion strategy is to have students write their notes at each stage to "smuggle writing" into the lesson. Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning. San Juan Capristrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning. Adapted in Wood, K. D. & Taylor, D. B. (2005). Literacy strategies across the subject areas. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

In Conclusion

As students enter middle school, many begin to exhibit a decline in their self-efficacy, in their interest in school, and, consequently, in their performance. Many are influenced by the attitudes and opinions of their peers, which can distract from academics and result in falling motivation and failing grades. To counteract this downward trend, it is important for teachers to implement strategies that help students regain confidence in their abilities and instill them with that "can do" attitude. Providing motivating and engaging strategies will encourage students to participate in classroom activities to build both the academic and the social skills they will need throughout their lives.

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Karen Wood is a professor and graduate reading program coordinator at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. E-mail: kdwood@email.uncc.edu

Anne Tope Edwards is a middle school librarian at Charlotte Country Day School and doctoral student in curriculum and instruction literacy at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. E-mail: Edwards@ccds.charlotte.nc.us

Patty Hill-Miller is an instructor of reading at Central Piedmont Community College in Charlotte, NC, and is a doctoral student in curriculum and instruction literacy at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. E-mail: Patty.Hill@cpcc.edu

Jean Vintinner is a reading teacher at Vance High School in Charlotte, NC, and is a doctoral student in curriculum and instruction literacy at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. E-mail: jmpayne@uncc.edu

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